Scotland presents another difficulty altogether.
English schools commonly maintained punishment books, although practices differed between education authorities.
Scotland did not operate precisely the same recording system.
The traditional Scottish school punishment was the tawse, or belt, generally administered to the hand.
Former pupils frequently remember it being used for offences ranging from talking and poor work to more serious misconduct.
Because systematic records are much harder to find, researchers sometimes have to rely upon contemporary surveys and personal recollections to estimate how frequently it was used.
This makes direct comparisons between England and Scotland particularly hazardous.
The English cane may appear more prominent simply because more written evidence survives.
